Overview of Cryptography and Encryption Techniques

Overview of Cryptography and Encryption Techniques What is cryptography Cryptography is the discipline of cryptography and cryptanalysis and of their interaction. The word â€Å"cryptography† is derived from the Greek words â€Å"Kryptos† means concealed, and â€Å"graphien† means to inscribe. It is the science of keeping secrets secret. One objective of cryptography is protecting a secret from adversaries. Professional cryptography protects not only the plain text, but also the key and more generally tries to protect the whole cryptosystem. Cryptographic primitives can be classified into two classes: keyed primitives and non-keyed primitives as in the figure. The fundamental and classical task of cryptography is to provide confidentiality by encryption methods. Encryption (also called enciphering) is the process of scrambling the contents of a message or file to make it unintelligible to anyone not in possession of key â€Å"key† required to unscramble the file or message. Providing confidentiality is not the only objective o f cryptography. Cryptography is also used to provide solutions for other problems: Data integrity, Authentication, Non-repudiation. Encryption methods can be divided into two categories: substitution ciphers and transposition ciphers. In a substitution cipher the letters of plaintext are replaced by other letters or by symbols or numbers. Replacing plaintext bit pattern with cipher text bit patterns is involved in substitution when plaintext is viewed as a sequence of bits. Substitution ciphers preserve the order of plaintext symbols but disguise them. Transposition ciphers, do not disguise the letters, instead they reorder them. This is achieved by performing some sort of permutation on the plaintext letters. There are two type of encryption :symmetric(private/secert) encryption key and asymmetric(public) key encryption. Conventional encryption model A conventional encryption model can be illustrated as assigning Xp to represent the plaintext message to be transmitted by the originator. The parties involved select an encryption algorithm represented by E. the parties agree upon the secret key represented by K. the secret key is distributed in a secure manner represented by SC. Conventional encryption’s effectiveness rests on keeping the secret. Keeping the key secret rests in a large on key distribution methods. When E process Xp and K, Xc is derived. Xc represents the cipher text output, which will be decrypted by the recipient. Upon receipt of Xc, the recipient uses a decryption algorithm represented by D to process Xc and K back to Xp. This is represented in the figure. In conventional encryption, secrecy of the encryption and decryption algorithm is not needed. In fact, the use of an established well known and tested algorithm is desirable over an obscure implementation. This brings us to the topic of key distribution. Cryptanalysis Code making involves the creation of encryption products that provide protection of confidentiality. Defeating this protection by some men’s other than the standard decryption process used by an intended recipient is involved in code breaking. Five scenarios for which code breaking is used. They are selling cracking product and services, spying on opponents, ensure accessibility, pursuing the intellectual aspects of code breaking and testing whether one’s codes are strong enough. Cryptanalysis is the process of attempting to identify either the plaintext Xp or the key K. discovery of the encryption is the most desired one as with its discovery all the subsequent messages can be deciphered. Therefore, the length of encryption key, and the volume of the computational work necessary provides for its length i.e. resistance to breakage. The protection get stronger when key size increases but this requires more brute force. Neither encryption scheme conventional encryption no r public key encryption is more resistant to cryptanalysis than the other. Cryptographic goals However, there are other natural cryptographic problems to be solved and they can be equally if not important depending on who is attacking you and what you are trying to secure against attackers. Privacy, authentication, integrity and non-repudiation are the cryptographic goals covered in this text. These three concepts form what is often referred to as the CIA triad? The three notations represents the basic security objectives for both data and for information and computing services. FIPS PUB 199 provides a useful characterization of these objectives in terms of requirements and the definition of a loss of security in each category: Confidentiality: Preserving authorized restrictions on information access and disclosure, together with means for shielding personal secrecy and copyrighted material. A damage of privacy is the illegal disclosure of information. Integrity: Guarding against improper information modification or destruction, and includes ensuring information non-repudiation and authenticity. A loss of integrity is the unauthorized modification of information. Availability: Ensuring timely and reliable access to and use of information. A loss of availability is the disruption of access to an information system. Although the use of the CIA tried to define security objectives is well established, some in the security field feel that additional concepts are needed to present a complete picture. Two of the most commonly mentioned are: Authenticity: The property of being genuine and being able to be verified and trusted; confidence in the validity of a transmission, a message, or message originator. Accountability: The security goal that generates the requirement for actions of an entity to be traced uniquely to that entity. Generally there are two types key present 1 Symmetric-key 2 Asymmetric-key Symmetric key encryption The universal technique for providing confidentiality for transmitted data is symmetric encryption. Symmetric encryption is also known as conventional encryption or single-key encryption was the only type of encryption in use prior to the introduction of public-key encryption. Countless individuals and groups, from Julius Caesar to the German U-boat force to present-day diplomatic, military and commercial users, use symmetric encryption for secret communication. It remains by far the more widely used of the types of encryption. A symmetric encryption scheme has five ingredients as follows- Plaintext: This is the original data or message that is fed into the algorithm as input. Encryption algorithm: the encryption algorithm performs various transformations and substitutions on the plaintext. Secret key: The secret key is input to the encryption algorithm. The exact transformations and substitutions performed by the algorithm depend on the key. Ciphertext: This is the scrambled message produced as output. It depends on the plaintext and the secret key. For a given message, two different keys will produce two different ciphertexts. Decryption algorithm: This is reserve process of encryption algorithm. It takes the ciphertext and secret key and produces the original plaintext. Symmetric key encryption is shown in fig. There are two necessities for protected use of symmetric encryption: We need a strong encryption algorithm. Sender and receiver must have secured obtained, keep secure, the secret key. Stream Ciphers The stream ciphers encrypt data by generating a key stream from the key and performing the encryption operation on the key stream with the plaintext data. The key stream can be any size that matches the size of the plaintext stream to be encrypted. The ith key stream digit only depends on the secret key and on the (i-1) previous plaintext digits. Then, the i ­th ciphertext digit is obtained by combining the ith plaintext digit with the ith key stream digit. One desirable property of a stream cipher is that the ciphertext be of the same length as the plaintext. Thus, a ciphertext output of 8 bits should be produced by encrypting each character, if 8-bit characters are being transmitted. Transmission capacity is wasted, if more than 8 bits are produced. However, stream ciphers are vulnerable to attack if the same key is used twice ormore. Block Ciphers A block ciphers fragments the message into blocks of a predetermined size and performs the encryption function on each block with the key stream generated by cipher algorithm. Size of each block should be fixed, and leftover message fragments are padded to the appropriate block size. Block ciphers differ from stream ciphers in that they encrypted and decrypted information in fixed size blocks rather than encrypting and decrypting each letters or word individually. A block ciphers passes a block of data or plaintext through its algorithm to generate a block of ciphertext. Asymmetric Key Cryptosystems In Asymmetric Key Cryptosystems two different keys are used: a secret key and a public key. The secret key is kept undisclosed by the proprietor and public key is openly known. The system is called â€Å"asymmetric† since the different keys are used for encryption and decryption, the public key and private key. If data is encrypted with a public key, it can be decrypted only by using the corresponding private key. Public Key Encryption shown in fig. Classical encryption techniques The technique enables us to illustrate the basic approaches to conventional encryption today. The two basic components of classical ciphers are transposition and substitution. Combination of both substitution and transposition is described in others systems. Substitution techniques In this technique letters of plaintext message are placed by symbols and numbers. If plaintext is in the form of a sequences of bits, then substituting plaintext bit patterns with ciphertext bit patterns. Transposition techniques Transposition instantly moves the position around within it but does not alter any of the bits in the plaintext. If the resultant ciphertext is then put through more transpositions, the end result has increasing security.

Development of memory in infancy

Development of memory in infancy Discuss, with reference to appropriate experimental studies, the development of memory in infancy. Memory is the process of encoding, storing and retrieving information. Encoding is the acquiring and the entering of information into the system. Storage is the retaining of the memories over time, and retrieval is recovering the stored memories when required to do so. Memory consists of three systems. Firstly there is the sensory memory, which is the perceptual system which stores only the recently acquired images for long enough to integrate it with the next, therefore producing an apparent motion. Secondly there is short-term memory that is a temporary storage for small quantities of information for a brief time. Finally the long-term memory system holds relatively permanent information. Studying the development of memory in infancy has many benefits, as it helps to show how memory develops over time. This knowledge from research can be applied to different settings, for example an educational setting, where the more a teacher understands about the memory development of children the more they can use this information to guide childrens learning therefore giving the best possible learning outcomes. This essay will discuss the strategies used to help with encoding, storing and retrieving information. To help compare the development of infants memory, studies with older children have been included. Memory strategies are the ways in which people effectively remember information. These strategies include encoding strategies and retrieval strategies. Encoding strategies are used to help enter the information into the memory; this can include rehearsal, organisation and elaboration. Rehearsal refers to the mental repetition of information. Brainerd and Reynas (2002) fuzzy trace theory suggests there are two memory representations. These are verbatim trace and gist trace. The verbatim trace refers to remembering information exactly, whereas gist trace is remembering the general meaning of the information. The gist trace representations last, but the verbatim trace representations leads to more forgetting. Flavell, Beach and Chinsky (1966) studied rehearsal in 5 year, 7 year and 10 year olds. Each age group had 20 children, who were all given a set of 7 pictures. The children were told to try and remember some of the pictures. After a 15 seconds gap, the children were asked to say al oud the pictures they could recall. During the 15 seconds gap a lip reader assessed what they believed each children might have been saying to themselves. They found that two of the 5 year olds, more than half of the 7 year olds, and most of the 10 year olds repeated the pictures to themselves. It was found that rehearsal lead to better recall. Flavell et al. (1966) found that age differences may show the development of strategies used, such as rehearsal. Although some of the children may have been using rehearsal strategies, but may not have moved their lips. McGilly and Siegler (1990) carried out an extension on Flavell et al.s (1966) study, by also asking children to report how they remembered the pictures. They found a high amount of children (74%) reported using rehearsal strategies. However only 39% were observed, by lip reading techniques, using rehearsal strategies. Therefore suggesting that children of all ages use rehearsal, however it may not be as effectively used in you nger children (Smith, Cowie Blades, 2003). This would explain age differences in recall in Flavell et al.s (1966) study. Ornstein, Naus and Liberty (1975) compared the rehearsal strategies of 7 year olds and adults. Participants were given a word to remember every 5 seconds, and asked to say aloud what they were thinking. They found that children repeated the word until the next word was given, then they would repeat the next word. Whereas adults repeated the word until they were given the second word, then they would repeat both words. Therefore showing that adults effectively used organization, but 7 year old children did not use this at all. This is important in showing that children use rehearsal strategies, but they lack the knowledge of how to effectively use such strategies. A study by Naus, Ornstein and Aivano (1977) taught 8 year olds a strategy of rehearsing in groups of three. They found that the 8 year olds could recall the same amount as 12 year olds, after being taught the chunking strategy. Therefore younger children can do this, but the organization of rehearsal does not occur naturally at these ages. Organisation, or chunking, is the grouping of information in an effective way to help with encoding. Moely, Olson, Halwes Flavell (1969) showed children a set of pictures that were in a random order in laid out in front of them. The set included pictures of animals and furniture, for example. The children were instructed to learn all the pictures and if it helped them they were allowed to rearrange the pictures. It was found that the children of 10 years and older had effectively used organisation strategies, as 10 year olds had categorised pictures according to whether it was an animal, or a piece of furniture, etc. As with rehearsal strategies, the younger children were not effectively using the organisation strategy. The children use this strategy, but do not seem to have developed knowledge of how it is best to be used, like the older children had. Elaboration is the strategy when people make associations between given information to help with encoding and the subsequent recall of this information. Foley, Wilder, McCall and Van Vorst (1993) gave 6 and 9 year olds verbal images to help them to recall pairs of words. The childrens recall was better if the image was basic, yet memorable. Pressley and Levin (1980) found that children of 7 years could use elaboration if an effective image was given with the pair of words, of which one was English and the other was its Spanish equivalent. This led to children learning the words better. Therefore children can use elaboration as an encoding strategy when given support, but the use of elaboration by themselves had not yet developed fully. As Buckhalt, Mahoney and Paris (1976) found when children first begin to use elaborations they use simple, static elaboration, whereas older children use active elaborations. Active elaborations are images that are distinctive and therefore remembered better, allowing for a better recall. Leichtman and Ceci (1995) studied the reliability of childrens testimony. The study was set in a preschool, where a stranger, Sam Stone, came in for a day. Some of the children were then given suggestive interviews every week for four weeks after. All of the children were interviewed on the fifth week, by a new interviewer, who had not seen Sam Stone or any of the previous interviews. The children were firstly asked for a report of what happened on the day of Sam Stones visit, and then asked questions. The leading questions had led a high majority of the 3-4 year olds to make false claims, although the 5-6 year olds were less likely to do this. Therefore younger childrens encoding is effected by what is inferred by other people, for example the leading questions in Leichtman and Cecis (1995) study inferred that Sam Stone had done something wrong, this lead to 72% of the 3-4 year olds saying he had done it, and 44% even claiming to have seen him do it. The older children were not affe cted by the leading questions as much, therefore showing that the encoding for the older children may have been better as they felt secure in what they could recall. Retrieval strategies are the ways in which people recall information from long-term memory. Kreutzer, Leonard and Flavell (1975) studied how 5 and 10 year olds would retrieve information from long-term memory. They used a story and asked the children how they could remember the answer. Kreutzer et al. (1975) found all 10 year olds could think of one way at least, whereas only half the 5 year olds could do this. Therefore the 5 year olds had not all developed effective retrieval strategies. Kobasigawa (1974) used 24 pictures, from 8 categories, for children of 6, 8 and 11 years of age to learn. Along with the pictures the children were shown 8 cue cards, one for each category. Later on the children were shown the cue cards and asked to recall the earlier pictures. A third of the 6 year olds used the cue cards, whereas most of the older groups did this. The 11 year olds only effectively used the cue cards, by using them to help name all the pictures they could remember from that catego ry. The 6 and 8 year olds who used the cue cards, only named one picture from each category. Therefore suggesting that the 6 year olds had not developed the knowledge of how to use cue cards. The 8 year olds knew to use the cue cards, but they didnt know exactly how to use them. Therefore full knowledge of the usefulness of cue cards must develop later on, as the 11 year olds could use them effectively. Retrieval cues, such as cue cards, are strong aids to recall, according to Nelson (1990) people have no early memories because verbal cues are used as retrieval cues. Simcock and Hayne (2002) assessed the language skills of infants of 27, 33 and 39 months, and then tested the infants verbally and non-verbally. The infants were then tested on their recall at 6 or 12 months later. Simcock and Hayne (2002) found retention on both verbal and non-verbal recall, however non-verbal memory recall was better than verbal. They also found that verbal recall reflected the verbal abilities at the time of encoding, therefore showing that encoding is important in the recall of information. Overall many of the basic processes are seen at birth, and are crucial from the early days. Memory strategies develop from the second year, but only become predominant between 5 to 7 years old, these strategies include rehearsal, organisation and elaboration. With age comes the development of quality, frequency, flexibility and the effective use of these strategies. Changes in the efficiency with age of encoding can be seen, as at the age of 2-5 years children can hold from 2 to 4 pieces of information in short-term memory, and at 7 years this is increased to 5 pieces of information. This is through the effective use of rehearsal, as this helps the child to become better at registering information as well as organising it and therefore helping to make storage and retrieval easier. Meta-cognitive skills refer to knowing that you know. Implicit knowledge of meta-cognition skills can be seen later on in infancy, whereas explicit knowledge develops from the age of 5 to 15. In general children under-report, therefore specific questioning leads to greater reporting and prevents the information from decay. To increase retrieval of information in infants it is important to encourage them to think deeply about what they are being asked to remember (Butler, Gross Hayne, 1995). The phrasing of the question can clearly lead children into the answer they think the interviewer wants, as Leichtman and Cecis (1995) study has shown. An important area to study in memory is forgetting, as a lot can be learnt about memory from what is not remembered as well as what is. For example, Hartshorn et al. (1998) found that infants aged between 2 and 18 months exhibited retention after the shortest test delays. They also found as the interval increased the younger infants were the first to forget, this is determined by experience. This study shows that forgetting is affected by experience; therefore what is remembered must also be affected by experience. Research into memory development in infants needs to take into account the biological side, as the brain is still changing and developing itself and plays a huge role in memory. References Butler, S., Gross, J., Hayne, H. (1995). The effect of drawing on memory performance in young children. Developmental Psychology, 31, p. 597-608. Brainerd, C. J., Reyna, V. F. (2002). Fuzzy-trace theory and false memory. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 11, p. 164-169. Buckhalt, J.A., Mahoney, G. J., Paris, S. G. (1976). Efficiency of self-generated elaborations by EMR and nonretarded children. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 81, p. 93-96. Flavell, J. H., Beach, D. R., Chinsky, J. M. (1966). Spontaneous verbal rehearsal in a memory task as a function of age. Child Development, 37, p. 283-299. Foley, M. A., Wilder, A., McCall, R., Van Vorst, R. (1993). The consequences for recall of childrens ability to generate interactive imagery in the absence of external supports. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 56, p. 173-200. Hartshorn, K., Rovee-Collier, C., Gerhardstein, P., Bhatt, R. S., Klein, P. J., Aaron, F., Wondoloski, T. L., Wurtzel, N. (1998). Developmental changes in the specificity of memory over the first year of life. Developmental Psychobiology, 33, p. 61-78. Kobasigawa, A. (1974). Utilization of retrieval cues by children in recall. Child Development, 45, p. 127-134. Kreutzer, M. A., Leonard, C., Flavell, J. H. (1975). An interview study of childrens knowledge about memory. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 40, p. 1-58. Leichtman, M., Ceci, S. (1995). The effects of stereotypes and suggestions on preschoolers reports. Developmental Psychology, 31, p. 568-578. McGilly, K., Siegler, R. S. (1990). The influence of encoding and strategic knowledge on childrens choices among serial recall strategies. Developmental Psychology, 26, p. 931-941. Moely, B. E., Olson, F. A., Halwes, T. G., Flavell, J. H. (1969). Production deficiency in young childrens clustered recall. Developmental Psychology, 1, p. 26-34. Naus, M. J., Ornstein, P. A., Aivano, S. (1977). Developmental changes in memory: The effects of processing time and rehearsal instructions. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 23, p. 237-251. Nelson, K. (1990). Remembering, forgetting, and childhood amnesia. In R. Fivush J. A. Hudson (Eds.), Knowing and remembering in young children. P. 301-306. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press. Ornstein, P. A., Naus, M. J., Liberty, C. (1975). Rehearsal and organizational processes in childrens memory. Child Development, 46, p. 818-830. Pressley, M., Levin, J. R. (1980). The development of mental imagery retrieval. Child Development, 61, p. 973-982. Simcock, G., Hayne, H. (2002). Breaking the barrier: Children do not translate their preverbal memories into language. Psychological Science, 13, p. 225-231. Smith, P. K., Cowie, H., Blades, M. (2003). Understanding Childrens Development (4th Edition). Blackwell.

Overview over Religion :: essays research papers

Overview of Religion In this tutorial, you will learn about the religious experience in general and some of its variations around the world. The focus will be on the types of religious beliefs and religious leaders, especially in small-scale societies. An exploration of Christianity, Judaism, Islam, or any other major religion is beyond the scope of this tutorial. The approach taken is that of cultural relativity--religious practices or beliefs are not evaluated in terms of their "correctness" or "sophistication" but, rather, in terms of their function within the societies that maintain them. What is Religion? A religion is a system of beliefs usually involving the worship of supernatural forces or beings. Religious beliefs provide shape and meaning to one's perception of the universe. In other words, they provide a sense of order in what might otherwise be seen as a chaotic existence. Religions also provide understanding and meaning for inexplicable events such as a loved one being killed in an earthquake or some other unpredictable force of nature. For most religious people, their beliefs about the supernatural are at the very core of their world views. Importance of Rituals Symbolic objects used in Christian rituals The performance of rituals is an integral part of all religions. Rituals are stylized and usually repetitive acts that take place at a set time and location. They almost always involve the use of symbolic objects, words, and actions. For example, going to church on Sunday is a common religious ritual for Christians around the world. It usually requires the wearing of somewhat different clothing and interacting with others in a particular manner in a sacred location. At the heart of this experience is a sequence of traditional ritual acts that symbolically represent aspects of the life, teachings, and death of Jesus. Maya Temple in Guatemala built on a high pyramid base to make it a sacred location Most religious rituals are performed in special places and under special conditions, such as in a dedicated temple or at a sacred spot. This is an intentional separation between the secular and the sacred. By being removed from the ordinary world, the sacred acts are enhanced for the believers--the separation makes the rituals more effective. Only allowing initiated people to participate in religious rituals also can have the same effect. Religious ritual reinforces the basic tenets of religion. For instance, the "partaking of the host" in the Catholic mass is a symbolic participation in the "last supper" of Jesus and, by extension, an affirmation of the acceptance of his teachings.

Religious Beliefs :: Religion History Essays Papers

Religious Beliefs Today's religious beliefs, governmental structures, laws and traditions of social behavior find their roots in the development of three main belief systems - Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Although other religious movements have developed throughout the years, these three belief systems have had the most impact on civilizations of the West. To better understand this impact, it is important to trace the development of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, and review the relationships between them. While each belief system is unique, there are many similarities due to their common beginnings. The philosophies and traditions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam most prominently begin with the founder of the Hebrews known as Abraham ca 1800 BCE Historically, these teachings were also subscribed by nomadic tribes, which settled in present day Palestine, near Mt. Sinai. The people of these tribes did not label themselves as Hebrews, and referred to God as the god of Abraham. This came about as God promised Abraham a son, and in the course of the events doubting that is old wife could give him a son, he had Ishmael with his maid, Hagar, and then later God's prophecy would be fulfilled with the birth of Isaac, by his wife Sarha. Due to their belief system, the tribe proliferated the idea that Isaac and his descendants were chosen by God to carry forward Abraham's holy lineage. Isaac was the forefather of what was to become the 12 tribes of Israel, while Ishmael and his descendents were to constitute a different Semitic tribe and follow Arabic traditions. The term Judaism came about after the establishment of the state of Israel when the tribes divided into two, the northern and Judas kingdoms, ca 922-587 BCE The customs and belief systems of these nomadic tribes to be later identified as Arab tribes were very similar to the Hebrews'; however, the Arab tribes developed in some subtle ways. They remained nomadic, whereas the Hebrews tended to follow the teachings of the Holy Scriptures to the achievement of The Promised Land. As for the Arab nomadic tribes because of this development, a centralized governing agent who organized the religion did not develop as it did with the Hebrews. In approximately ca 1290-1250 BCE, Moses further supplemented both traditions with a covenant between God and his believers. Moses married Zipphora, from a different Semitic tribe, (Ishmael descendants?) as they referred to God as the God of Abrahim; this would indicate the strong similarity of beliefs and customs between the Hebrew and Arab tribes at that time.

Organizational Behavior Essay -- Organization Group Business

Organizational Behavior, by definition, is the study of human behavior, attitudes, individual differences, and performance in organizational settings. Understanding the internal and external forces within an organization is important to the success of any business. The internal and external forces that are to be understood are restructuring, economy, competition, fiscal policies, organizational mission and globalization and economy. Economic factors for an educational institution are greater than is generally thought. Internal and external economic issues affect continued success and profitability of the organization. Receiving no tax monies, private educational institutions depend solely on students for their income stream. Economic forces affecting educational forces usually work in reverse of the current economic conditions present in the private sector. As the economy worsens on a national level more people consider returning to school. As a general rule enrollment standards during periods of economic slumps tend to increase as schools tighten admission requirements to admit only the most qualified students. Although outside economic forces on private educational institutions are minimal, internal forces on the University of Phoenix prove to be of greater impact on the profitability of the parent organization. Private organizations respond to internal economic forces by limiting expenses due to the fact that limited funds and controllable expenditures are the most easily manipulated items in any budget. Many organizations feel that salaries are the greatest controllable cost for the organization. However, â€Å"Colleges are faced with 3 types of costs: 1. uncontrollable costs, which include utilities, books, supplies, and equipment, 2. controllable costs, which include wages, salaries, and contracted services, and 3. mixed costs, which include employee benefits and employment taxes.† (Bernard & Beaven, 1985, 78) The University of Phoenix feels that reducing staff and therefore reducing salaries is counterproductive. Reducing staff levels inhibits the universities ability to service students and lessens the likelihood that students will complete the educational goals and graduate with the degree they desired. The University of Phoenix and the parent company The Apollo Group approach the subject of economic forces as opportunities. By increasing staff... ...es transcontinental interactions and global networks of activity, which increases the diffusion of ideas, goods, information and people. In conclusion, the internal and external factors of Organizational Behavior thrive in each of our team member’s workplaces. Each of these factors goes hand in hand, and can produce both positive and negative impacts on any organization. Understanding the factors of Restructuring, Economy, Competition, Fiscal Policies, Organizational Mission and Globalization and how they relate to an individual’s specific workplace is necessary to the success of any organization. References Global Transformations. (1999, March). Retrieved July 31, 2005, from http://www.polity.co.uk/global/executiv.htm#whatis Schermerhorn, J.R., Osborn, R.N. & Hunt, J.G. (2005). Change, innovation and stress. Organizational Behavior, 16, pp. 6, 21 & 34. Retrieved July 28, 2005 from UOP Online, 9th Edition, rEsource. Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Schermerhorn, J. R., Hunt, J. G., & Osborn, R. N. (2005). Introducing Organizational Behavior. In Organizational Behavior (p. 25). John Wiley & Sons, Inc

Poverty in Canada or USA

During the period between 1929 and 1953, the United States occupational pay ratios and earning inequality is declined, mainly across World War II (Ober 1948, Phelps Brown 1977, Williamson and Lindert 1980, Goldin and Margo 1922b). The evidence showed that the condition of income inequality was occurrence in that period. Moreover, the problem of income inequality is declined. But, the problem of income inequality is existed. The government cannot spread the income distibution evenly. Many reasons obstructed the income distribution evenly. In my discussion, I concentrate to explain five reasons to influence the income distribution in the United States in the 20th century. Changing in social norms is related to the income distributions. Many people think that women represented a cheaper alternative for employers. Their jobs were viewed as temporary to be abandoned in favor of marriage and a home. High turnover combined with a large pool of replacements in any occupation will tend to depress wages, but it also means there is no incentive to provide career opportunities or invest much effort to train persons for more responsibility. Consequently, women tended to fill the more specialized and lower-paying work, while men moved into the new office manager roles. The fact is that clerical, service, and sales work does not yield significant financial returns to people with more formal education or longer work experience (Bibb & Form, 1977). In large part, this is because most of these are low ceiling careers, lacking in meaningful promotion opportunities for higher paying positions. The jobs have been filled advantageous position by one sex or the other. The point is strongly influencing the income distributions. The point of the unionization is related to the income distributions. Unions have improved wages and benefits, increased job security, and protected workers from discriminatory managerial decisions. Male workers are more likely to be members of trade unions, thus enjoying the advantages of collective bargaining for wages and earning more than women (Flaherty & Caniglia, 1992). Overall, women are about half as likely to be union members as men. Rinehart wrote, ? Â § This accommodation to capitalist power was formalized in what is known as the post ? V World War II compromise forged in the midst of the intense class struggles of the 1940s. This settlement between labor, big capital, and the state featured the establishment of a new industrial relations system and stipulated a set of trade ? V off. Unions were legally recognized and accorded organizational security.? (P. 184) Changing in the education level of the population is related to the income distribution. In the U. S, the financial return to a university or college degree also declined during the 1970s. One explanation of this phenomenon was the substantial increase the proportion of the population going to university, particularly the entry into the labor force of the ? Baby-Boom? generation during the 1970s (Welch 1979). Freeman (1976, 1980) argued that the demand for educated workers also declined, so that not all of the change in relative earnings could be attributed to temporary developments on the supply side. Dooley (1986) concluded that the entry of the large baby? Vboom cohort during this period did lower earnings growth for this group, but that this demographic effect could not account for the observed harrowing of earnings differentials by level of education. Dooley? s results thus suggest that demand ? V side forces may also have played a role. Changing in the age structure of the population is related to the income distribution. The shapes of the earning streams reflect the main key factors which is earnings increase with age but at a decreasing rate. This concave shape reflects the fact that individuals generally continue to make human capital investments in the form of on-the-job training and work experience once they have entered the labor force. This job experience adds more to their productivity and earning s early in their careers due to diminishing returns to experience. However, to the extent that education increases productivity, individuals with the same amount of work experience but more education will earn more, perhaps substantially more. Migration is related to the income distribution. Economic theory predicts that the forces of competition would serve to reduce pure regional wage differentials so that they reflect compensating differences, short-run adjustments, or noncompetitive factors. Those forces of competition were the movement of capital from high- to low-wage areas, and the movement of labor from low- to high-wage areas. Empirical evidence tends to verify the implications of migration as a human capital decision. In a recent study, Osberg, Gordon, and Lin (1994) explore the determinants of interregional and interindustry mobility of individuals in the Maritimes. Using the 1986-87 LMAS, they find that younger individuals and those with higher expected wage gains are more likely to migrate. As well, the process of migration tends to reduce the regional disparities that induce the migration decision. In conclusion, the five reasons are influence the income distribution in the United States in the 20th century. The social norms show that the income inequality is happened between men and women. The unionization shows that the unions have a power to improve the wages and benefits for their members. In this situation, the income inequality is happened between union? s members and non-unions members. Although the demand for education workers was declined, education people still earn more than the uneducated people do because they have an expertise knowledge and experience. Migration is benefits for the young individuals. They can have a chance to prove themselves. Therefore, the movement of migration decreases the regional disparities.

Hottie Hawgs Bbq Case Study

Hottie Hawg’s Smokin’ BBQ Case Study Team 16 Strengths: * NASCAR Partnership * Excellent food * Differentiated brand * Creativity of owners * Excellent marketing * Low infrastructure costs * Mobile restaurant * Little brand competition * Service flexibility * Proprietary recipes * Community support/interests * Professional marketing image Weaknesses: * Lack of cash flow * Leadership working for two companies * Loss of founder means all lies on Vaughn * High travel costs for events outside of Atlanta * Licensing decision reduces the opportunity of franchise income * Limited distribution capabilities Expansion is expensive * Non-centralized staff * Lack of business credit * Limited menu * Use of ACT funds to finance HHBBQ operations pierces the corporate veil. * Limited catering experience Opportunities: * Aramark/Pepsi Center opportunity * NASCAR as growth partner * Growth within Atlanta * Brand awareness through additional licensing and potential franchising * Merchandi se sales * Brick-and-mortar Flagship locations * Popularity of Food Trucks Threats: * Hooters Restaurants * Other barbecue restaurants * Customer reluctance to patronize a polarizing brand * Loss of trade-secret information Legal costs * Economic downturn/slow economic growth * Rising fuel and transportation costs * Pitmasters BBQ uses similar logo and brand image: 1. If you were in Kyle Vaughn’s position, which strategic option would you take? Explain your reasoning. Hottie Hawg’s Smokin BBQ was presented with an opportunity for tremendous growth early on in the life of the company that would test the limits of HHBBQ’s ability to raise capital, produce the quantity of food required and maintain the quality of the product while protecting the brand name and mark they had worked to cultivate.The Aramark/Pepsi Center contract would guarantee HHBBQ at least 100 events, projected at 16,000 people per event, and make HHBBQ the exclusive BBQ vendor for the arena. We b elieve of the two strategy alternatives HHBBQ had, the correct choice would be to pursue the Aramark contract. As a company that is looking to expand, passing up an opportunity of this magnitude might not occur again. Either of these two strategies are viable and possess pros and cons, but pursuing the Aramark contract would grant HHBBQ more potential rewards than passing.HHBBQ has already worked with one professional sport in NASCAR and the opportunity to serve customers of the NBA and NHL are markets that are too valuable to pass on. Once the decision to accept the Pepsi Center deal is made, HHBBQ will face more decisions on how best to handle supplying the needed food for the events. HHBBQ would have to re-locate the â€Å"18 Squeeler†, an open-air smoker on wheels, to Denver to prepare the BBQ or rent a local kitchen until a permanent commissary was set up.HHBBQ faced legitimate concerns regarding the ability of the Squeeler to meet the high food demand of the Pepsi Cente r and whether the legal costs, potential loss of food quality and possibility of compromising the brand image when dealing with a rented kitchen would make the deal not profitable. From the case study, the first 18 Squeeler was available one week after the initial conversation between Vaughn and Rybka. To meet the demand of the Pepsi Arena, HHBBQ should purchase an additional Squeeler so the food quantity and quality are not compromised.Once cash flow has begun and enough capital is raised to open a Denver commissary, the two Squeelers would be freed up to once again to perform at local events within the community and allow one Squeeler to return to Atlanta to service the home market. These are challenges that service firms face when attempting to match their products to the needs of their target markets (Ferrell & Hartline, 197). HHBBQ will experience on the job training while learning how to best forecast the correct amount of food needed to serve the arena and the number of new e mployees to hire and train to accommodate the number of visitors to the arena.Because most services are dependent upon people (employees, customers), HHBBQ must avoid past mistakes in variations in quality and inconsistency such as overstaffing, food waste, and less than ideal image promotion (Ferrell & Hartline, 198) to maintain high service quality and profitability. Although service quality is a subjective phenomenon (Ferrell & Hartline, 198),   this particular marketplace would not allow for service customization but allow HHBBQ to focus on food quality and speed of service to meet their customers’ needs. . Comment on the decision to license the Hottie Hawg’s brand rather than enter into a franchise agreement with Seymour. In the company’s situation, is it better to promote easier expansion through franchising or maintain tight control over brand image through licensing? Explain. At this early stage in Hottie Hawg’s Smokin’ BBQ’s histo ry, it is important to cultivate the brand image carefully and with almost obsessive attention to detail.The offering of tasty barbecue served by attractive women in a fun and laid-back environment is in its introductory stage (Ferrell & Hartline, 217), and will soon move into the growth stage if all goes well. Hottie’s must work to grow and build brand equity and establish a differential advantage in the market. This is done through careful management of the product and brand over this time. Public relations, advertising and incentives are critical at this stage in the brands life, as it sets the tone for the growth and maturity stage.Will this be just another barbecue joint or will Hottie’s stand out among a sea of ribs and wings? Rybka initially envisioned a brand so â€Å"extreme and offensive (as) to purposely alienate a large portion of the population† (Ferrell & Hartline, 519)   Allowing a franchisee to potentially dilute this brand is a risk they shoul d not be willing to take. The branding strategy employed by HHBBQ depends on the extreme offensiveness they are building, and a franchisee that doesn’t have the same â€Å"tough guts† that Vaughn and Rybka have may not be capable of sticking to their vision.Vaughn has done an excellent job thus far in developing a different style of BBQ restaurant in the southeast, and should protect the emerging brand image fiercely in order to maintain and develop according to the company’s vision. A license agreement, where complete control can be exercised over the quality of the food, the brand image, logos and marketing materials allows Vaughn to control the direction of the company, while realizing income from licensed sales.The brand is the most valuable asset to this emerging company; in fact, the brands image was â€Å"the cornerstone of the company’s success thus far† according to Lee, and therefore, should remain the top priority at this stage in the ga me (Ferrell & Hartlien, 526). It should also be noted that by licensing the product rather than franchising, HHBBQ has been able to avoid many unnecessary expenditures that go along with franchising. Had they sold Seymour a franchise, they may have had to invest more in him in terms of training, product knowledge, and other resources that HHBBQ cannot spare at the current time.Licensing provided Seymour an avenue to invest without much overhead expense, and still provided HHBBQ with licensing revenue and fees. 3. Assume that Hottie Hawg’s is successful with the Aramark/Pepsi Center opportunity. What should Vaughn’s next move be to continue that growth and success? Vaughn’s efforts, with the success of the Aramark/Pepsi venture will have resulted in the beginning of the growth stage of HHBBQ BBQ. This continuing growth stage has happened because sales increases will have been occurring rapidly due to the appeal of the product (Ferrell & Hartline, 219).Additionall y, Hottie Hawg’s BBQ will want to 1. â€Å"Establish a strong and defensible market position† and 2. Earn profit to repay debts as well as enough profit to justify moving forward with the business (Ferrell & Hartline, 219). In order to do this, Vaughn’s next moves should be to pursue one flagship brick & mortar location, more   18 squeelers to expand the reach of the product line, look for more venue arrangements that could be profitable, potentially pursue venture capital, and pursue more licensing agreements. Pursuing a flagship brick & mortar restaurant should be an important next step for Vaughn.Up to this point, Vaughn has not built a brick & mortar location because traditional storefronts require heavy upfront investment costs (Ferrell & Hartline, 521). However, with the cash flow that a successful Aramark/Pepsi Center opportunity will bring, it will be the right time to invest in a flagship location. A major benefit to creating a flagship store front in Atlanta, GA will be that HHBBQ will be able to finally focus some resources on the opportunities in Atlanta for local catering parties and events in this major metropolitan area (Ferrell & Hartline522).This will create more cash flow for the company, and the increased presence in the Atlanta metropolitan area should help to strengthen the position of the company by fulfilling the event catering need that has not been met there as of yet (Ferrell & Hartline, 213). Purchasing more 18 squeelers to increase the reach of the product line should be a next step for Vaughn. The 18 squeeler was one of the first pieces of equipment bought by Rybka and has proven to be invaluable (Ferrell & Hartline, 519).This smoker allows HHBBQ to reach out to people over a wide geographic area, resulting in increased brand awareness which helps build more brand equity (Ferrell & Hartline, 205). Investing in more 18 squeelers will allow HHBBQ to continue expanding the awareness of its high quality product, which will help set up future associations and increased cash flow. In fact, the food truck industry, of which HHBBQ’s squeeler would be considered part, is growing at a rate of 18. % in North Florida which shows that there are still incredible growth opportunities in this arena, although competition is increasing as well (Haughney, 2). Vaughn should also look for more venue arrangements. These arrangements are great opportunities because they offer tremendous upside potential through solid revenues, profits, and exposure (Ferrell & Hartline, 525). Partnering with major arenas such as the Pepsi Center is ideal because massive amounts of people will see and try the product and take that favorable opinion about the brand home with them.HHBBQ is poised to increase cash flow considerably if they can establish similar arrangements with some of the NASCAR events that they are already affiliated with, other popular arenas such as the Amway Center in Orlando, FL, Turner Field in Atla nta, GA, or busy venues such as major zoos, amusement parks, or even in airports. Venture Capital is another way for HHBBQ may be able to help fund growth after the successful Pepsi Center opportunity. Selling a minority stake of the company for cash may be a very smart move in order to fund future growth.HHBBQ will have enough viability now that there will certainly be interested parties. Venture Capital firms, such as Seed Capital, which provides investment in new start-ups, exist to make a return on their investment (Haughney, 3). HHBBQ could fund major expansion with a large influx of cash, as well as hire more support staff to handle the increased demand for product. Increasing the amount of licensing agreements for HHBBQ is also a smart move. Licensing agreements allow HHBBQ to receive substantial cash flow while allowing the company to maintain quality control over both brand and product (Ferrell & Hartline, 524).These controls are still very important, because HHBBQ’s brand image and great tasting food help set the company apart from competitors. Additionally, HHBBQ currently only has a licensing agreement in the Denver, CO area which means that an incredible growth opportunity exists here. Adding a few other major markets would be a wise move to ensure viable cash flows for HHBBQ. 4. If the Aramark/Pepsi Center opportunity turns out to be unsuccessful, what should Vaughn do to ensure the ongoing viability of Hottie Hawgs?If the Aramark/Pepsi decision proves unsuccessful, then Hottie Hawgs would have the opportunity to focus on other investment opportunities. As they do not have an excess of cash flow, it is our belief that Hottie Hawgs would initially benefit from raising capital. This time would also allow the fledgling company to build experience, maturity, and further develop within the growth stage, while having the additional financial flexibility that would come with more capital. Once Hottie Hawgs has raised ample capital, they would the n be able to focus on licensing/franchising, and more â€Å"Squeelers†.This capital would also allow Hottie Hawgs to consider the possibility of a brick and mortar restaurant. Hottie Hawgs has already established that they can attain profitability with the â€Å"Squeelers† once they verify the proper amount of food necessary. So the investment or licensing in additional â€Å"Squeelers† units would allow them to effectively manage the company’s growth. If the decision were to prove unsuccessful, Hottie Hawgs could also take that opportunity to move their operations back to closer to their home base. Atlanta, which has a population of over four million, would be a prime location for Hottie Hawgs to grow.Atlanta, which is a major metropolitan market, hosts NASCAR, MLB, NFL, and NBA, all of which could be potential events or venues where Hottie Hawgs could find success. This would also allow Hottie Hawgs to continue to attend successfully proven events, in t heir proximity, like the Billfish Tournament in Panama City. As noted in the case, Eric Rybka’s initial approach for Hottie Hawg’s branding was to, â€Å"create enough negative publicity to make the brand infamous, and then slowly morph the brand enough to be mainstream†. To ensure viability, Hottie Hawgs can take this unsuccessful decision and turn it an opportunity.They would now have the ability to change their brand to a more mainstream and socially acceptable brand. As we know from our text, a brand is a combination of the company’s name, symbol, and design. Taking an opportunity to refine these would fit well into Eric Rybka’s initial intent and direction of the company. This unsuccessful decision can also be turned into an opportunity for Hottie Hawgs to consider improvements or revisions of existing products. As noted in our text, these improvements or revisions can create a â€Å"greater perceived value† for the customer.In these ch allenging economic times, Hottie Hawgs could also consider cost reduction strategies. As noted in our text, cost reduction strategies would allow Hottie Hawgs to maintain a level of performance, but do so, â€Å"at a lower price†. This would allow Hottie Hawgs to appeal to the most cost conscious customers, but maintain the level of performance that has brought them initial success. This strategy could be achieved by considering lower cost meat providers, lower priced ingredients, or reducing costs in other facets of the restaurant, such as plates, utensils, cups, or napkins.Hottie Hawgs could also consider a co-branding strategy. Hottie Hawgs could contract and have Coke and Hottie Hawgs brand marks on their cups. They could also co-brand with locally prevalent companies to put their advertising on Hottie Hawgs to-go bags or boxes, along with Hottie Hawgs brand marks. Overall, it is our determination that if the Aramark/Pepsi decision proves to be unsuccessful, Hottie Hawgs still has a multitude of opportunities to maintain viability. Hottie Hawgs can consider licensing/franchising opportunities.They can make a decision to raise capital to obtain more Squeelers. They can consider other venues, like Atlanta, with the reasons that we noted above. Lastly, they can consider reconfiguring some of their strategies, utilizing concepts from the text, that would allow them to refine some of their strategies in an effort to maximize the fulfillment of the customer’s needs, while attracting a greater customer base. Even if the Aramark/Pepsi decision is unsuccessful, that does not mean that Hottie Hawgs is void of alternatives that can allow them to maintain viability and rofitability. O. C. Ferrell & Michael D. Hartline: â€Å"Marketing Strategy, Fifth Edition†    2011 Haughney, Kathleen. â€Å"Keep On (Food) Trucking. †   850businessmagazine. com. 850 Business Magazine. Web. 02 March   2013. http://www. 850businessmagazine. com/index. php? option=com_content&view=article&id=601%3Akeep-on-food-trucking&catid=64%3Aq-and-a&Itemid=1 Couret, Jacques. ‘ARC: Metro Atlanta Population Hits 4. 17 Million† bizjournals. com. Web. August 09, 2012 http://www. bizjournals. com/atlanta/news/2012/08/09/arc-metro-atlanta-population-hits. html? page=all